Introduction

The sustained international interest in Chile that resulted from the political events of the 1970's and 1980's and more recently resurrected by the arrest of General Pinochet in England, is fascinating when you consider the country's modest size, relatively small population and it's geographical situation in the world. It used to be a country where even the Chilean people admitted that "no pasa nada" (nothing happens). The most attention it ever attracted was from the frequency of the earthquakes that regularly shook the country. However, the events of the military coup in September 1973 and the seventeen years of dictatorship that followed, have radically changed the world's perceptions of Chile. At that time, the overthrown socialist government that had been freely elected, was replaced by a regime that adopted an oppressive and violent policy in the hands of the twentieth century's most controversial figures, General Augusto Pinochet.

Despite two decade of repression, Chile has emerged with one of the most stable economic and political conditions witnessed anywhere today. With this resilience in mind, the unique aspects of this century that have affected society and culture there deserve the world's attention and respect. The problem of oversimplifying by stereotyping all of Chile's art under one category is a problem which the viewer must be aware of from the outset, but there is evidence of many factors that unite the artists which are important to any studies of Chilean art today. The emphasis in this report has been on the entanglement of art and politics which has produced some of the more radical and dominant art, whilst not ignoring the many diverse genres throughout the country.

A Concise Geography and History of Chile

First, a few notes on the geographical of Chile:

The country is almost four times the size of England

Population of 14 million

5 million people live in the capital city of Santiago

20% of the population are under 25 years old

4,200 kilometres in length (the equivalent distance from Norway to Mexico, or New York to San Franscisco)

average width of the country is only 200 kilometres

The entire eastern frontier is made up of the Andes, and the western frontier with the Pacific Ocean stretching as far as, and including, Easter Island (a five hour flight from Santiago).

The Atacama desert in the north, which contains the famous Valley of the Moon, is purported to have never seen rain, and the highest lake in the world, Lake Chungara, can be found 4,500 metres above sea level in the National Park of Lauca, also in the north.

The south stretches through rain forests as far as the Antarctic territory, which is 42,500 square miles and reaches to the South Pole.

Today, Santiago has some of the characteristic of being one of the most advanced urban environments in the Western Hemisphere, already enjoying a sophisticated public transport system. Geographically estranged from Britain, Chile is something of an unknown entity to many Britons, despite making use of the importing their copper and increasingly enjoying their popular wines and vegetables. The War of the Pacific from 1879 to 1883, in which Chile defeated Bolivia and Peru, established that diverse country as the major South American power and marked a time when national pride reached an all time high. Two thirds of the population are mestizos, originating from mixed races of the European invaders, the indigenous tribes, and the small number of slaves imported. The population is therefore made up of the coming together of multiple nationalities with different cultural roots. It used to be a country distinguished by its lack of contribution to world events (other than major earthquakes). Historically renowned as a stable constitutional system, that reputation was dramatically upset by the military coup of 1973, which dramatically altered the established society. The plight of seventeen years of unpopular dictatorship has outraged and disgusted the world, and the people of Chile are determined to prevent any reoccurrence.

The dominant assumption of the twentieth century has been that progress is associated with the metropolis and with technology, and is restricted to the Northern Hemisphere by the poverty of the marginal countries. But urban sophistication reached many parts of Latin America early. In Chile, the capital Santiago was founded in 1541 by Pedro de Valdivia, and it remained established as a Spanish colony until the 1817 Battle of Chacabusco. During the six years that followed that battle, Bernado Higgins unsuccessfully attempted to break up the Spanish social structure by means of a social revolution. He was forced out of power in 1822, and in 1823 a conservative constitution was established and remained in place until 1924. During that period, Chile enjoyed a stable and steady growth in the economy with a great deal of development in trade and industry. Educational reforms were implemented with the establishment of the University of Chile 1842, and the freedom of the press was granted in 1872.

In September 1973, the democratically elected socialist government was overthrown by a military coup that resulted in the country's rule under a military junta made up of the Navy, Army, Air Force, and Police, with General Pinochet as their leader. Following seventeen years of dictatorship, Pinochet was finally replaced by President Aylwin, who represented the coming together of fifteen parties (excluding the Marxists). His commitment to social reform was emphasized throughout his four years in office and Chile now enjoys democratic election of its governing bodies. The steady growth in the wealth of the country has urged redirection of the new money to the masses that still live in shanty towns on the outskirts of Santiago in appalling poverty. The emphasis on construction to ease the slum conditions serves as a daily reminder that equal distribution of wealth is still far from resolved. European aid that was denied during the Pinochet regime is now reinstated, and will help the country to recover. President Aylwin's term in office, whilst not radical, made strong foundations for a steady return to democracy which continues today. The failings of the judicial system and the uneven distribution of wealth are now high on the agenda.
Despite the political instability of the 1970's, for the past two decades, Chile has served as the model for economic growth in Latin America. Britain is already Chile's largest EU investor, accounting for about 5.5% of total foreign investment. They regard Britain as an important destination for exports. Whilst copper accounts for nearly half of Britain's imports, expansion of trade in other areas will depend on promotion of the quality of Chilean produce, which is already noticeable in trade of wine, fruit and vegetables. Yet the British import market to Chile remains the same as in 1994 at 2.2%, well behind the US, Japan, Germany, and South Korea market, despite the significant rises in tourism to nearly 10% in 1995. The fact remains that Chile is the world's fastest growing economy outside Asia today, and that the relationship between the two booming economies is poised for rapid expansion. In 1995, Chile exported more to Asia than to North, Central and South America combined, totaling 34% of export trade. In September 1996, South Korea and Chile signed an agreement to protect and promote their countries investments. South Korea is waking up to the huge potential in that area. Nevertheless, Chile is still anxious to push their trade relationships world wide. The economy is expected to grow by 6% this year, which will be led by exports, expected to expand by 11%. Unemployment is falling steadily and was recorder at 7.1% from May-June 1996. The signs are that this previously considered underdeveloped country has a rapidly growing economy and a new wealth that will help its people to breakdown the barriers that portrayed them as "backward" and "underprivileged".

Modernism in Chile

Political beliefs in the early twentieth century

Alongside the turbulent and political conditions of the twentieth century Latin America life, the problems of the modern world and the art movements that addressed the dilemmas exist in isolation within the various parts of the continent that affected them. Modernisation arrived in the continent at different degrees and varying times, with Chile as the first to experience the rapid expansion in the cities and industry. But the most important contribution to Chilean cultural expression was undoubtedly in literature throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The visual arts failed to make any real impact in the country until the 1920's. Flaws in the political organisations provided literature with a forum for expressing the truths unable to be voiced elsewhere within their social structure. As Chile is a nation anxious to declare its values in political choice, freedom and the idea of a social conscience, the political forum was found in literature. The Pillages Sueltos 2 that were on the street corners as early as 1860, provided the average person with the opportunity to indulge in political and social debate. Just as today, it was not unusual to hear heated social disputes on the boulevards of Santiago. Student commitments to politics was powerful and encouraged the publication of a magazine called Claridad, which appeared in the early 1920's, in which some of Pablo Neruda's3 first poems appeared. The magazine extended their ideas and beliefs throughout the continent by distributing the magazine to audiences in Peru, Argentina and Brazil. As a result, the magazine contributed to the belief that the Communist party was the only force available to bring unity to South America.

In 1982, Gabriel Garcia Marquez's Nobel Prize for Literature acceptance speech demonstrated the perplexity shared by so many Latin American artists and intellects. "Why is the originality so readily granted in literature so mistrustfully denied us in our different attempts at social change?" he asked.

The aspirations of the Latin Americans and their questioning of their accepted values was made more difficult by the hegemonic configuration of Europe that excluded them from mainstream culture. It was not until the early twentieth century, when the fashionable idea of looking at alternative cultures in order to resolve the escalating dissatisfaction within western society, resulted in any attention to Latin American countries - other than for economic exploitation. The search for an "other" was reflected in the sudden interest in the exotic and the indigenous. Many would cite this as an intrusion that has resulted in the invasion and destruction of the privacy of many of the indigenous tribes. But there was, at that time, a genuine belief in Latin America that the indigenous cultures possessed the remedy for the growing virus known in the West as "materialism" and which had infiltrated Latin America as a result of colonosation. With independence from Europe came the opportunity to assess and review values. In the publication, Ariel, the Uruguayan journalist, Jose Enrique Rodo, was able to contrast and compare the two forms of society that existed side by side. That which was influenced and controlled by the Europeans and North Americans and which was materialistic and utilitarian. And the second which was a product of an elite which was capable of sacrificing material advantage for spiritual beliefs, the roots of which can be traced to Pre-Columbian. Rodo was widely admired for his writing, particularly by Jose Vasconcelas, who founded the Mexican Muralist movement after the Mexican Revolution, and helped to spread the growing confidence in the post colonial states of a feeling of "national identity".

Throughout this essay, I want to continually emphasis that Latin America was made up of many different cultures and that any attempts to assume a total would be futile. Rather than do that, I hope to compare, and on occasion identify, common shared interests. In Chile, the native culture was much less prominent because of the geographical oddities of the country. The colossal scale of immigration from all over the world and the multiplicity of cultural backgrounds created one of the most heterogenous societies on our planet. Furthermore, albeit less conspicous than elsewhere in Latin America, Chile had succeeded in integrating the existing tribes into their society, accordingly maintaining much of their original native culture. Even today the Mapuche tribes continue to live in the south of Chile. Driven away by colonisation they have sought refuge in the furthest south regions of the country where the climate prevents their invaders from following. The bulk of the Chilean population is made up of mestizos, cross bred from the native population and the European immigrants.